»We examined the basic rules for reading consonants. Do not think that by memorizing only them, you will correctly read any English word. Be sure to come across an unfamiliar word that will not be read according to the rule. But yes, 90% will submit to you. In any case, knowing these patterns of reading various letter combinations, you can guess how the word you need is read. And if in doubt, still look in the dictionary.
English Reading Rules: Vowels
- Letter first in line BUT.
What sounds can she make?
- in an open stressed syllable, in combinations ai, ay , and before the letter combination angle : baker, crane, cable, gain, rain, bay, stay, change, dangerous. Among the exceptions: many, have, said.
- in combinations ai , ay , age in an unstressed syllable, this letter gives the sound [i]: carriage, captain, storage.
- [æ] in a closed syllable: cap, dangle, factor, hatch, rash, rat.
- [Ɔ] in a closed syllable after w, wh : wad, waffle, what.
- [Ə] in an unstressed syllable: myopia, pasta, regalia.
- [ƐƏ] in combinations air, are : hair, bare, pair, rare, stair, mare.
- in combinations ar, aft, ass, ance, ast, ath, ans, ask, ant, alf, anch : card, barge, craft, after, grass, dance, glance, last, past, rather, father, answer , bask, task, plant, grant, half, calf, branch. Among the exceptions: mass, gather, pathos.
- [Ɔ:] before l or l+ consonant, as well as in combinations au, aw, aught, auth, war, quar : call, football, altogether, paunch, law, caught, authority, warble, quart, quarterly.
- The second letter will be O.
Her range of sounds is as follows:
- in an open stressed syllable, before a letter l, letter combinations ll, ld, st, as well as in combination oa and ow (at the end of words): so, ago, note, provoke, rose, enroll, bold, coat, oath, oat, road, boast, show, mow, blow, most, post. Among the exceptions: do, does, who, now, how, cost, lost.
- [Ɔ] in a closed stressed syllable: plot, fox, spot, knot, drop.
- in combination oo : moon, afternoon, poop, rooter. Exceptions: good, wood, foot, etc.
- [u] combined oo , but before the letter k : cook, look, brook, hookey, nook, rookie.
- in combinations ou, ow in the middle of a word: gown, clown, crown, crowd, about, cloud, proud, bound. Among the exceptions: enough, country, double, touch, young, bowl.
- [Ɔi] in combinations oi, oy : choice, voice, boil, spoil, enjoy, loyal, toy.
- [Ɔ:] combined or in shock position, as well as in combinations oor, ore, oar, ough+t and our (in the middle of a word): fort, corn, boring, torn, adore, floor, door, therefore, more, board, bought, fought, sought, source, mourn, course, pour. Among the exceptions: poor, moor, courage. Combination our under stress can produce another sound -: hour, sour, lour, but four. The same combination at the end of words is conveyed by the sound [Ə], as well as the combination or in an awkward position: neighbour, labor, doctor, creator, illustrator.
- [Əs] - this is how we read the combination ous at the end of words: glamorous, tremendous, curious.
- [Ə:] is the reading of the combination wor in shock position: world, workable, worse, worship. Exception: worn .
- [ᴧ] - such a sound occurs when reading combinations oth, on, om, ov under stress: mother, other, month, son, some, become, lover, dove. Note: both .
- The next vowel from the English reading rules is a letter E.
What sounds can we meet in her presence:
- in an open stressed syllable and combinations ee, ea: be, fetor, Steve, feel, peel, teeth, seem, breathe, dean, meal, peace. Among the exceptions: great .
- [e] in a closed stressed syllable and in combination ea before letters d,n and letter combinations th, sure : nest, pet, mental, spread, steady, feather, weather, measure, treasure, meant, cleanser. Among the exceptions: read , lead .
- in combinations ey, ey in stressed syllable: prey, convey, eight, freighter.
- read with combinations eu, ew: few, nephew, Europe, deuterium.
- [Ə:] should be read in combinations er in the stressed syllable, and in ear followed by a consonant: deserve, Berlin, mercy, earth, pearl, dearth. Among the exceptions: heart. If the combination er is in an unstressed position, the same sound appears, only short, not long [Ə]: limber, answer, producer, perhaps.
- we will pronounce in combinations ear, eer, ere : near, dear, fear, career, steer, here, hemisphere. Among the exceptions: bear , there [ƐƏ], were .
- [i] - this is how the letter will be read E in an open unstressed syllable (including the combination er ), in combinations et and ey at the end of words: prevent, erect, exact, regret, restore, regress, bonnet, planet, closet, journey, attorney, honey.
- Let's move on to the vowel I.
In addition to the alphabetic reading, this vowel also produces other sounds:
- in a stressed open syllable, combined ie at the end of monosyllabic words and before letter combinations such as nd, ld,gn, gh : prime, kite, bite, die, blind, mind, wind(coil), child, wild, design, sign, sigh, high, fight, bright. Among the exceptions: wind- wind, gild ,live, forgive, cinema.
- in a closed stressed syllable and in an unstressed position, this letter is read as [i]: brick, risk, whist, testimony, handiwork, inclusion.
- a long sound is obtained when reading a combination ie in the middle of root words: field, priest, grief, believe. Exception: friend .
- [Ɛ:] requires combination ir in shock position: stir, first, thirty, girl.
- in combinations ire, ia, io : desire, mire, diagnosis, bias, violinist, riot.
- The penultimate vowel will be Y
.
She has five options for sounding in different cases:
- in a stressed open syllable: cry, lye, byway, cynosure.
- [i] in a closed stressed syllable and in an open unstressed: mystery, syntax, randy, oily, quandary. But: apply[Ə'plai]
- in combination yr+ consonant this is the sound [Ɛ:]: myrtle. And in the same combination, only in a company followed by a vowel, we get the sound: lyre, pyre, gyration.
- [j] at the beginning of a word before vowels: yard, yellow, yawl, youth, yet, yolk.
- And finally the letter U
. What should you know about the sounds it produces?
- in a stressed open syllable: puce, mute, lurid, fuel, cucumber.
- [ᴧ] in a closed syllable: publicity, pug, mug, mustard, butter, fun, hurry. Among the exceptions: put, push, pull, full, etc.
- [Ɛ:] combined ur in stressed syllable: purpose, purse, hurl, urban, urge. But: current[‘kᴧrƏnt].
- and in the same combination, but in an unstressed syllable, as well as simply in an unstressed position in words, this letter reads [Ə]: suggest, supply, mustache, suppose. Note: mercury[‘mƏ:kjuri].
- before a letter r and the following vowel: pure, furious, mural. But: sure[ʃuƏ].
- after letters l, r, j in combinations ue,ui : true, blue, juice.
If you are studying with a teacher (), then studying this material will not cause difficulties at all, a maximum of one lesson is devoted to this. In fact English reading rules not as complicated as it might seem at first. There are just too many of them, and just as many exceptions. That is why difficulties arise when we try to read in English. But everything comes with experience. And you can learn how to read!
If you find an error, please highlight a piece of text and click Ctrl+Enter.
>> Learning the letter Ee and letter combinations ee, ea
The vowel Her in an open syllable conveys the sound. 
1 Listen and read.
he we Pete
me zero be
The combination of letters conveys sound. 
2 Listen and read.
see seek tree free need
fee feel street week freeze
bee feet green weep seem
The letter combination ea conveys the sound. 
3 Listen and read.
sea weak read leaf east
tea beach lead clean eagle
neat peach mean cream heat
dean teach team steam please
4 Read the new words and mark the ones that appear in the alphabet song.
Question: Why are the words week (week) and weak (weak)
spelled differently but pronounced the same?
Answer: Unfortunately, there is no rule. You just need to remember how these words are spelled.
5 Read and make one sentence out of two sentences.
Sample: It "s a sock. It" s wet. = It's a wet sock.
1) It's a tree. It's green. 5) It's a bench. It's old.
2) It "s a street. It" s clean. 6) It's a box. It's empty.
3) It's a pig. It's big. 7) It's a dress. It's red.
4) It "s a dog. It" s weak.
All animate masculine nouns can be replaced
pronoun he (he).
For example: a man - he, Tom - he, dad - he.
6 Continue the sentences.
Sample: It "s Pete.- He is good.
1) It "s Jim.- ... is fine.
2) It "s Bill.- ... is weak.
3) It "s Sam.- ... is clean.
4) It "s Dan.- ... is free.
7 Insert he or it.
Sample: It "s a cat. It is sad.
1) It "s a dog. ... is happy.
2) It "s Tom. ... is at home.
3) It "s Jim. ... is in a street.
4) It "s a joke. ... is funny.
5) It "s Tim. ... is in a hut.
6) It "s Fred. ... is in a tree.
8 Do ex. 8W in the Workbook.
1 Fill in the blanks. Enter her or ea. Find two words that are pronounced the same but are spelled differently and mean different things.
2 Insert the article a / al where necessary.
1) It "s ... empty box. 6) It is ... old man.
2) It "s ... green tree. 7) Is it ... yummy?
3) It's ... Tim. 8) It's ... big street.
4) He is ... funny. 9) He is not... little.
5) He is ... good pilot. 10) It's ... apple.
3 Translate into English.
It's a cat. She is 5 years old. She is on the bench.
This is Ben. He is 10 years old. He's outside.
This is Sam. He is 9 years old. He is at home.
Digraphs in English are a pair of letters used to represent a single phoneme in the written form of a language. The following article provides definitions and information, as well as ideas for learning letter combinations in English. This article is suitable for both children and adults, as it is written in simple language. In addition, you can listen to audio and listen to how words and digraphs are read in English. Let's start learning the rules for reading letter combinations in English.
How to learn digraphs
Letter combinations in English are very common and therefore it is necessary to study them at the first stage of learning, both for adults and children. Many sites write that even an adult finds it difficult to understand how digraphs are read. We do not agree with this. Remember, everyone can learn a language, you just need to try hard and pull yourself together. Therefore, we want you to believe in yourself and forget such words as: "I am not able to learn a language, because I am not inclined towards foreign languages."
The first thing you need is to read our article to the end. Second, learn a few consonant digraphs and practice them by reading words and short stories. In this article, you will only get acquainted with consonant letter combinations in order to gradually learn each digraph, and in the next article we will introduce you to vowel combinations.
Definition of digraphs
What are digraphs?
Digraphs or in English digraphs are two letters that have one sound. Digraphs can consist of vowels or consonants. Digraphs are different from blends. While a blend is a group of letters where each letter represents an individual sound such as b-l in the word bloom or s-t-r in the word street. What are digraphs?
Reading and pronunciation of letter combinations in English
In this section, you will learn how to read letter combinations in English.
The letters in brackets are the sounds written in the International Phonetic Alphabet. First, listen to the audio and pay attention to the transcription and memorize the combination of letters.
The combination of consonants in English:
- sh [w] [ʃ] —
Examples:
1. Sh ed [ʃed] [shed] - Barn
2. Shelf [ʃelf] [shelf] - Shelf
3. Brush [brush] - Brush
- th [SS] [θ]
Listen carefully to how the combination th is read in English.
This sound needs to be given great attention, as there is no such sound in our native language. This phoneme is called interdental [SS]. You need to put your tongue between your teeth and pronounce a deaf in English transcription it looks like this [θ] .
Examples:
- Th ick [θɪk] [SSik] - Thick
- Th rust [θrʌst] [SS (p) ast] - Throw
- Th ug [θʌɡ] [SSag] - Hooligan
- th [ЗЗ] [ð]- letter combination th in English it is pronounced like the previous one, but it is voiced.
Examples:
- Th is [ðɪs] [ZZis] - This is
- Th ey [ðeɪ] [ZZey] - They
- Weath er [ˈweðə] - Weather
- th-[t]- Sometimes this combination of letters is pronounced as [t]:
- Th ailand [ˈtaɪ.lænd] [thailand] - Thailand
th the combination in English may seem complicated, since there is no such phoneme in Russian, but in fact our organs, in this case the language, can learn to pronounce such phonemes. You need to listen to foreign speech more. For example, British Radio. Check out the BBC radio 4 Extra website for a lot of interesting stories from comedy to horror. Listen and practice English speech.
- ch [h]
The combination ch in English has several variants, so remember the pronunciation of words that are written with this digraph.
Examples:
1. Ch ess [chess] - Chess
2. Bench [bench] - Bench
3. Rich [rich] - Rich
- ch - [k] [K]- This combination of letters in English is sometimes pronounced with the sound [K], as in the word [Cat]
Examples:
- Chorus [ˈkɔːrəs] [koores] - Choir
- Ach e [eik] - Pain
- Ch ristmas [ˈkrɪsməs] [crismas] - Christmas
- ch - [ʃ] [w]- In some cases, the same letter combination is read as [w].
- Mach ine [machines] - Mechanism, machine
- Mach ete [mesheti] - Machete
- Ch icago [ʃɪˈkɑ.ɡoʊ] [chicago] - Chicago
- ph [ph] [f]
- Neph ew [ˈnefjuː] [nef] - Nephew
- Dolph in [ˈdɒlfɪn] [dolphin] - Dolphin
- Ph onetics [phonetics] - Phonetics
- wh [ў] [w]
Examples:
- Wh ack [ўek] - Hit
- Wh eel [ўil] - Wheel
- White [ўayt] - White
- If for a combination of letters wh followed by a letter o, then the letter w unreadable:
- Wh o - Who
- letter combination ck-[k]- reads like [k]
- Truck [truck] - Truck
- Neck [neck] - Neck
- Puck [pack] - Washer
- dg - [j] [j]
Example:
- Grudg e [ɡrʌdʒ] [grudge] - Resentment, anger
- Budg et [ˈbʌdʒɪt] [bajit] - Budget
- gh - [f] [f]
In English, the digraph gh is read as [f] in the following words:
- Cough [coffee] - Cough
- Laugh [laugh] - Laughter
- Rough [raf] - Difficult
- gh – [g] [g]- the same letter combination has a second sound [G]
- Gh ost [ɡəʊst] - Casting
- gn - [n] [n]
- Gnome - Dwarf
- Gn at - Moshka
- Gn aw - gnaw
- kn - [n] [n] letter combination or digraph kn used in the following words:
- Kn ife [naif] - Knife
- Kn ight [night] - Knight
- Kn ot [notes] - Knot
* Compare: kn ight - n ight [night] - pronounced the same, spelled differently and translated differently. Night - night.
- lk - [k] [k]- letter L not pronounced.
- Walk [walk] - Walk
- Talk [current] - Talk
In these examples, we see another letter combination al before a letter k reads like sound [ɔː] , that is, a long sound [about].
- Chalk - Chalk
- Mn – [m] [m]
Mb [m] [m]
Words that end in (mn, mb) the last letter in this combination is not pronounced.
In combination mn, 'n' not pronounced.
In combination mb, 'b' not pronounced.
Look at examples:
- Autumn [ˈɔːtəm] [ootem] - Autumn
- Column [ˈkɒləm] [kolam] - Column
- Hymn [him] - Anthem
- Read now examples with letters mb :
- Climb [climb] - Climb
- Thumb [θʌm] [SSam] - Thumb
- ng–[ŋ]
The letter combination ng at the end of the word is read as [ŋ] , but this sound is not pronounced as [n], / ŋ / is a nasal sound made in the same position as / k/ and / g/, so the tongue rises behind, touching the soft palate, and the noise is emitted through the nose. Try again!
Example:
- Thing [θɪŋ] [SSin] - Thing
- King [kin] - King
- letter combination nk reads like a sound [ŋk], for example:
- Ink [ɪŋk] [ink] - Ink
- wr - [r] [(p)]
Letter W at the beginning of a word before a letter R unreadable:
- Write [right] - Write
- Wr ap [rap] - Wrap up
- Rh etoric [ˈretərɪk] - Rhetoric
- Rh ino [ˈraɪnəʊ] - Rhinoceros
Letter combination table in English
After carefully studying the combination of English letters, you can save yourself a table and use it as a mini-hint.
Reading English letter combinations of vowels with consonants
- igh - [ah] qu-
- Qu een [Queen] - Queen
- Qu ick [quick] - Quick
- ew - [yu]
Letter combination with vowel and consonant ew in most words it is read as a sound combination .
- New [new] - New
- View [view] - Opinion, look
Consonant combinations in English are an important topic, because if you want to be able to read in English, you definitely need to know how to read a word that has two letters, but is read as one.
In the next topic, we will explore vowel combinations or digraphs. In the meantime, we suggest downloading a document with sentences that have consonant digraphs in English. Read them carefully several times. At first slowly, pronouncing each word as clearly and clearly as possible, pay attention to pronunciation, if you do not know how a word is read, look at the transcription in the dictionary, then after you have learned to pronounce the words, read them faster.
The combination of sounds in English with transcription
In this section, we will analyze important sound combinations in English.
First sound combination:
- [pl]- Before a stressed vowel, it is pronounced together. This sound is pronounced very energetically, that the sound [l] [l] partially stunned:
- Pl ease [pliz] - Please
- Pl ane [plane] - Airplane
- [cl]- Pronounce this sound combination in the same way as , before the stressed vowel is pronounced together and the sound [l] partially stunned:
- Clean [wedge] - Clean
- - When pronouncing these sounds, it is necessary to maintain the quality of pronunciation.
—
—
- Sound combinations [t] [d] [n] [l] with sounds [θ] [ð] . Alveolar sounds [t] [d] [n] [l] before the interdental, they become either dental or interdental, as they lose their alveolarity.
- At this [æt ðɪs]
— Read this
- Sound combinations [θr] .
Combined sound r with the preceding consonant, both sounds are almost pronounced the same:
- Bright - Bright
- In sound combinations the tip of the tongue is not on the alveoli, but behind them.
—Try
— Dr.y
Exercises for letter combinations in English
Run your eyes over the table, and then take the test for English digraphs.
Reading 37 min. Published on 02.03.2020
It is required to interrupt the fermentation process at a certain time in order to obtain a wine of the required strength, rich, sweet taste. Experienced winemakers advise slowing it down after removing the wine from the sediment, before the corking stage.
After the filtration procedure, more sugar is added to the drink for taste. At the same time, the wine begins to ferment again, if this is not interrupted, the product will turn out to be dry and very strong.
In addition, it is necessary that microorganisms, lactobacilli, yeast fungi do not become active and do not harm the quality of the finished homemade product.
Fermentation is an important factor for obtaining a quality drink.
Fermentation - the processing of sugars (glucose and fructose) into ethyl alcohol and carbon dioxide, an obligatory biochemical reaction, the basis of winemaking. Yeast fungi that are part of the drink cause a violent reaction during its production. At this time, the taste, aroma, color, quality of the future wine is laid.
The process begins in the workpiece after 6-12 hours, subject to all the technology, there are several stages:
- Fermentation - yeast begins to multiply in a container with prepared raw materials.
- Stormy - yeast occupy the entire volume of the liquid, release alcohol, foam forms on the surface, you can hear a characteristic hiss. Duration - 4-8 days.
- Quiet - the basis of the future wine ferments until all sugar is processed, the period depends on its content, on average - 20 days, the number of yeast decreases.
After the wine is poured into a clean container, tasted, sugar is added to obtain a sweet or semi-sweet drink and put on fermentation. It lasts 30-40 days. During this period, it is required to pay increased attention to the future product for its best quality. Therefore, it is important to know how to interrupt fermentation in young wine.
There are several different ways to stop the fermentation process of a grape intoxicating drink at home.
The use of young wine in small doses improves metabolism, increases appetite, helps to cope with sleep disturbance, stressful situations. The drink contains many useful substances, this applies to a fully ripened product.
Unfermented wine is only allowed to taste a little to determine the taste, degree of fermentation, strength. Drinking is not recommended until the drink completely withstands all stages of preparation. There are still many fusel oils and other impurities. This can harm the liver, gastrointestinal tract, cardiovascular system, and cause allergies.
In almost all recipes for homemade wines, an obligatory step is the exposure of the fermented drink for a certain time in closed bottles. Why? Unaged wine is a healthy and, at the same time, harmful product.
The benefit lies in the vasodilating effect, the ability to stimulate excretion from the body
cholesterol. Young red wine normalizes metabolism, stabilizes the functions of the digestive system, and increases appetite. If you drink it in moderate doses, you can cope with insomnia, stress, saturate the body with useful substances, minerals, vitamins. But all this applies to wine drinks that have passed the stage of fermentation completely.
Young, not yet fermented wine can be tasted to determine its strength, add components that improve the taste of the drink. But drinking such alcohol is not recommended. There are too many harmful or even dangerous impurities in the unripened wort that can be harmful to health. In addition, the taste of unripe wine is frankly disappointing.
There are other reasons why you should not drink unfermented wine. Firstly, the "semi-finished" drink contains substances that destroy liver cells. Drinking young wine, even in small doses, is not recommended for people with poor health, with hepatitis C and other dangerous viral diseases and liver diseases in history.
Secondly, some components contained in unfermented wine destroy mast cell membranes. The histamine released as a result enters the blood, plasma and spreads through the internal organs. Exceeding the norms of histamine in the body causes inflammation of the gastrointestinal mucosa, which causes allergic diseases (urticaria, dermatitis).
In a word, no matter how long the fermentation of wine must lasts, you need to wait for it to finish, even if you really want to drink alcohol. It will be possible to drink bottled wine only when the drink is fully ripe.
Young house wine? living substance. Various bacteria and microorganisms live in it, which can completely unexpectedly resume fermentation abilities. It would seem that the drink stopped fermenting, and, moreover, after being removed from the sediment, it was sent for storage. Bottles can be stored for a certain time without arousing any suspicion in the winemaker, however, a slight change in storage temperature, or other reasons, can cause lactobacilli and fungi to become active. To prevent this from happening, the wine is stabilized using pasteurization, alcohol fortification or cryostabilization.
Pasteurization? this is heating in order to prevent the development of diseases and acetic acid fermentation. Bacteria and fungi die when heated, and the risk of unnecessary fermentation processes is reduced to zero. Pasteurization is carried out very simply: bottles of wine are placed in a saucepan, at the bottom of which a towel is laid in several layers, then water is poured so that the level of wine in the bottles is covered.
Fortification with alcohol or vodka is carried out both to increase the strength and to stabilize the product.
It is important not to make a mistake with the dosage here. How much vodka or alcohol is needed for fastening will help determine the following approximate calculation: to increase the strength by 1 ° add 2% 40-degree vodka or 1% 90% alcohol
In this case, the fortress will be 17 °, and bacteria and microorganisms will die. Again, the product will no longer ferment.
Cryostabilization, or cold stabilization, will also help to cope with unnecessary fermentation. Cold treatment consists in the fact that containers with a drink are placed for 14-20 days in a cold place, the temperature in which ranges from 5 to 0 ° C. Such a place can be a basement or a refrigerator. After cryostabilization, homemade wine is removed from the sediment, bottled. It can be sent to store for as many days as it takes to mature.
In addition to these methods, there are other methods that make the finished product stop fermenting: adding sulfur in the form of potassium sulfite, or fumigating storage containers with sulfur wicks.
Since sometimes even for decent money you can buy a drink of extremely poor quality, it's time to learn how to properly make wines at home, for the naturalness of which you can vouch.
For home production, it is better to use the so-called wine (or technical) grape varieties. Which ones grow in your area, use those. It is only necessary to correctly calculate the amount of sugar, taking into account the natural sugar content of the berries, so that in the end the wine has the right degrees and tastes good.
1. From fruits:
- apple and pear cider, more often - mixing juices;
- plum - sweet, thick;
- cherry - in special honor. Similar to the famous Cherry liqueur, but not as sweet and thick.
2. From berries:
- strawberry;
- currant;
- raspberry, etc.
3. Vegetable. They are called so because the raw materials are: birch or maple sap, watermelons, etc.
4. And, of course, grape. The varieties that grow in the area are used.
Young wine is a special product. It contains many bacteria and microorganisms that can suddenly start vigorous activity, as a result of which the fermentation process will resume. Sudden activity may be caused by temperature fluctuations or other factors. As a result, the finished wine in storage must be urgently rescued. The problem is that it is visually difficult to determine that the drink has begun to ferment again.
To avoid such a nuisance, many winemakers at home stabilize a young drink with:
- pasteurization;
- fixing with alcohol;
- cryostabilization.
Stopped playing after a week
Without a siphon, you can't make an alcoholic drink, as they say. It is important for the rapid removal of carbon dioxide from the fermentation vessel. Carbon dioxide that appears during fermentation is important to remove.
The fact is that their maximum concentration adversely affects the performance of microscopic fungi that cause fermentation.
What to do?
Pay attention to the siphon and its tightness. If necessary, the joint areas are treated with a special gel based on silicone, plastic or any available material of identical functionality. It is important to remove the applied ball only when absolutely necessary.
For the first few days, microscopic fungi that cause fermentation actively multiply, but for this they need air. Only then does the conversion of sugar into ethanol begin.
To prevent this, the first few days the grape juice must be kept in an open vessel, covered with a clean cloth or gauze bandage. Then the microscopic fungi that cause fermentation will first multiply, and then they will be activated.
This is the most common winemaker problem and is by far the most relevant:
- Yes, the fermenting fungus converts sucrose into an alcoholic drink.
- Sucrose is considered their main food source.
- But as soon as its concentration exceeds a certain limit, the fungi that cause fermentation become less active.
- Sugar in this case acts as a preservative.
What to do?
If the sweetness of the prepared grape juice exceeds twenty percent, it is important to add filtered water (fifteen percent of the total volume of liquid).
The same must be done with the thick juice from the vine. If necessary, the decomposition of organic substances caused by microorganisms is restarted.
During the preparation of a dessert or liqueur wine alcoholic drink, sucrose is always added in proportions on the second, fourth, seventh, tenth day in equal amounts, dissolving it in a small amount of the prepared drink.
For the first few days, the fungi that cause fermentation spend all their properties on reproduction, and only a few hours later, after reaching a certain concentration, they begin to think about feeding. At this stage, fungi use oxygen for their activity.
This can happen if the wort is not mixed with enough water. The consistency of the mass of crushed berries becomes thick, similar to jelly and it is difficult for microscopic fermentation fungus to develop in such an environment.
Consider in the key of the rules of reading and pronunciation with the ability to listen to each letter combination in the examples. For brevity, the basic rules for reading letter combinations are given in the tables.
Reading letter combinations
Reading vowel combinations
The table below shows the main (frequent) set of vowel combinations (see table No. 1), Russian and English transcription with examples of words and notes.
| letter combination | Transcription | Examples (listen) | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| ee, ea | (AND:) | 🔊 see , 🔊 sea | |
| ai, ai | (HEY) | 🔊 Strai ght , 🔊 May | |
| oo | (W:) | 🔊 too | before a consonant, except for k, r; also at the end of a word |
| oo | [u] (U) | 🔊 boo k | before the letter k; exception: 🔊 goo d |
| oor | [ɔ:] (U:) | 🔊 doo r | |
| ow | (AU), [əu] (EU) | 🔊 now, 🔊 window [‘windəu] |
|
| oi, oi | [ɔi] (OH) | 🔊 coi n , 🔊 employ | |
| ou | (AU) | 🔊 ou t | |
| oa | [əu] (eu) | 🔊 coa-t |
Reading letter combinations with consonants
Below (in table No. 2) are the main letter combinations of consonants.
| Letter (letter combination) | Transcription | When to use | Examples (listen) |
|---|---|---|---|
| b | [b] | in all cases | 🔊 b egin |
| mb | [m] | b is not readable at the end of a word after the letter m | 🔊 climb |
| c | [s] | before vowels e, i, y | 🔊 c ity [‘siti], 🔊 nic e , 🔊 c ycle |
| [k] | in all other cases | 🔊 with ap | |
| k | [k] | in all cases | 🔊 kite |
| ck | [k] | in all cases | 🔊 black |
| kn | [n] | at the beginning of a word | 🔊 kn ow |
| g | [ʤ] | before vowels e, i, y | 🔊 g entleman [ˈʤentlmən] |
| [g] | in all other cases | 🔊 g ate Exceptions: 🔊 g ive , 🔊 g et | |
| j | [ʤ] | in all cases | 🔊 jacket [ˈʤækɪt] |
| z | [z] | in all cases | z oo |
| h | [h] | in all cases | 🔊 h appy [ˈhæpɪ] |
| sh | [ʃ] | in all cases | 🔊 sh e [ʃiː] |
| tch | [ʧ] | in all cases | 🔊 catch [ |
| ch | [ʃ] | in words of French origin | 🔊 ch ampagne [ʃæmˈpeɪn] |
| [k] | 🔊 sch ool, 🔊 ch emistry [ˈkemɪstrɪ] | ||
| [ʧ] | in all other cases | 🔊 ch alk [ʧɔːk] | |
| th | [θ] | at the beginning and end of significant words | 🔊 th ink [θɪŋk] |
| [ð] | at the beginning of functional words (pronouns, articles) | 🔊 th e [ðiː] | |
| in significant words between vowels | 🔊 clothes | ||
| x | before a consonant and at the end of words | 🔊 tex t | |
| before a stressed vowel | 🔊 ex am [ɪgˈzæm] | ||
| ph | [f] | 🔊 ph oto [ˈfəʊtəʊ] | |
| ps | [s] | in words of Greek origin | ps ychology |
| r | [r] | before any vowel other than a dumb one | 🔊 rose |
| s | [s] | before consonants, at the beginning of a word, at the end of a word after a voiceless consonant | 🔊 bes t , 🔊 s tart , 🔊 cats |
| [z] | at the end of a word after a voiced consonant or vowel, between two vowels | 🔊 plays , 🔊 vis it | |
| ss | [s] | anyway | 🔊 class |
| ng | before sounds [l], [r], [w] | 🔊 Eng land [ˈɪŋglənd] | |
| [n] | in all other cases | 🔊 lan guage [ˈlæŋgwɪʤ] | |
| nk | in all cases | 🔊 bank | |
| w | [w] | at the beginning of a word | 🔊 w e |
| wh | [w] | if these letters are followed by any letter except o | 🔊 why |
| [h] | if these letters are followed by o | 🔊 who | |
| wr | [r] | at the beginning of a word before a vowel | 🔊 write |
Reading combinations of vowels with consonants
Finally, consider the last type of letter combinations in English (see table No. 3).
| letter combination | Transcription | When to use | Examples (listen) |
|---|---|---|---|
| wa | in all cases | 🔊 water [ˈwɔːtə] | |
| war | in all cases | 🔊 war | |
| wor | in all cases | 🔊 work k | |
| or, er | [ə] | at the end of words in an unstressed position | 🔊 doctor [ˈdɔktə], 🔊 computer |
| qu | before vowels | 🔊 quite | |
| al | [ɔ:] | in all cases | 🔊 all l [ɔ: l], 🔊 tal k |
| an | before consonants | 🔊 plan t | |
| af | 🔊 staff f | ||
| al | in the letter combination al, the letter l is not readable | 🔊 hal f | |
| as | 🔊 as k | ||
| igh | in all cases | 🔊 night t |
Knowing letter combinations in English, namely their use and pronunciation, you will learn how to read correctly! Good luck to you, dear friend!
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