One of the popular theories of personality is psychodynamic theory of personality by Z. Freud. Z. Freud compared human self-consciousness with the tip of the iceberg.
He believed that only an insignificant part of what actually happens in a person's soul and characterizes him as a person is actually realized by him. Only a small part of his actions a person is able to correctly understand and explain. The main part of his experience and personality is outside the sphere of consciousness, and only special procedures developed in psychoanalysis make it possible to penetrate into it.
According to Freud, personality is formed by 3 structural components:
"It" or unconscious
"I" or consciousness
"Super-I" or superconsciousness
According to this theory, personality is a contradictory unity of 3 interacting spheres: "It", "I" and "Super-I", the content and action of which reflects its essence and diversity.
These 3 spheres of personality are in constant interaction and influence each other's activities.
Sphere "It"- this is the instinctive core of the personality, this is the unconscious, which includes deep drives, motives and needs. Powerful instincts located in the "It" sphere determine the behavior of the individual. In general, the functioning of the "It" sphere is subject to the principle of pleasure. According to Freud, "It" is a source and supplier of energy for other areas of the personality.
We are born with It. We cannot change or influence this, because It is already embedded in us.
The second sphere of personality - "Super-I" - is guided by ideal ideas, moral ideals and values accepted in society. "Super-I" is the result of the impact of society on the consciousness and subconsciousness of a person, his acceptance of the norms and values of public morality. This sphere is formed in the process of socialization and is the last component of a developing personality.
The main sources of the formation of the "super-ego" personality are parents, teachers, educators, other people with whom this person entered into long-term communication and personal contacts throughout life, as well as works of literature and art.
"Super-I" develops already at the age of 4-5 years. On the one hand, "It" repeats: "I want this," "I want that." And the "Super-I" suppresses: "you can't, you didn't deserve ...". Therefore, these 2 spheres are constantly arguing and fighting among themselves.
And here the “I” helps to resolve the dispute, the conflict.
The third sphere of personality - "I" - this is the rational part of the personality, i.e. the sphere of consciousness is guided by the principle of reality. "I" is, as a rule, a person's self-awareness, perception and ethics of his own personality and behavior. "I" (consciousness) brings the requirements of the real world to the unconscious ("It").
"I" seeks to reconcile both conflicting sides - "It" and "Super-I" - in such a way that the drives of "It" were satisfied to the maximum extent and at the same time did not violate morality.
The psychodynamic concept of Z. Freud has many supporters and opponents. Freud's theory of personality has been criticized many times. It concerned the extreme biologization of man and the identification of the motives of his social behavior with the biological needs of animals and the belittling of the role of consciousness in the control of his actions. Also, Freud's theory is essentially speculative, i.e. many of the provisions contained in it cannot be considered scientifically proven. It is hardly permissible, for example, to build such broad theoretical generalizations as Freud did, only on the basis of clinical observations of several patients.
This thinker has helped us move closer to understanding why our lives and relationships are so confusing and painful, why life is difficult, and how to deal with it.
Sigismund Shlomo Freud was born into a family of Jewish bourgeois in 1856. His professional life took a while. While studying medicine, he dissected hundreds of acne in vain trying to find their reproductive organs. He promoted cocaine as a medicine, but later turned out to be dangerous addiction, but years later he founded the discipline that brought him fame - a new type of psychotherapy called psychoanalysis.
The revolution was made by his 1900 book, The Interpretation of Dreams, and others followed. Despite his success, he was very unhappy. During one particularly difficult study, he wrote "My main and most difficult patient is myself."
Freud was convinced that he would die at 61 or 62 and was terribly afraid of these numbers. However, he died much later. В 83. Perhaps it was thanks to his despair that Freud was able to deeply comprehend the causes of human misery. He suggested that we are all driven by the pleasure principle. It pushes us towards simple physical and emotional rewards and turns us away from unpleasant things like boredom and discipline. In infancy, we are almost completely driven by the pleasure principle, Freud argues, but if followed without restriction, it leads to dangerous and irresponsible behavior. For example, to complete idleness or overeating or (sensational detail) to sex with relatives.
We must consider what Freud called the principle of reality. We are all subject to him, however Freud believed that there are harmonious and disharmonious ways to live with him. He called disharmonious ways neuroses. Neuroses are the result of inept trading with the pleasure principle, or, in Freud's words, the repression of this principle.
Freud described the conflict between three sides of our nature: It (Id), driven by the principle of pleasure, the Super-Ego, which wants to follow the rules and be good in the eyes of society, and I (Ego), which is forced to adapt to both neighbors.
To understand their relationship, Freud suggests finding the origins of our neuroses in childhood.
Phases of psychosexual development according to Freud
Early in life we go through what Freud called the oral phase of the psychosexual. At this stage, the mouth is the main generator of pleasure. We master the senses associated with swallowing and eating. Many neuroses can develop here, for example, refusal to eat, as a pleasure, or vice versa food, as consolation or fear of depending on who feeds us.
Then comes the anal phase that is closely related to what we call "potty training." During this period, a person for the first time gets the opportunity to control at least something in his body, namely the processes of defecation and urination. In this phase, we learn to test the power of others. If something is wrong here, if we are disappointed in a figure of power, we can endure it just to spite her. This fixation forms an anal-holding personality type. Such a person is incapable of giving or reconciling.
Next comes the phallic phase. It lasts up to about 6 years. Freud shocked his contemporaries by claiming that children have sexual feelings. Moreover, in the phallic stage, children direct sexual impulses to their parents - the most accessible and close people in their life. It was Freud who described the famous Oedipus complex - an unconscious obsessive love for one parent and hatred for another.
The problem is that no matter how much our parents love us, they cannot transfer it to the area of sex. They will always build full-fledged relationships, first of all, with each other. This makes us feel dangerous jealousy and anger. And also shame and guilt for being angry. This complex causes incredible internal anxiety in the baby. As a result, most of us experience mixed feelings about our parents, which later shape our image of love. For example, if the mother was cold to us, we still yearn for her tenderness, but at the same time we can continue to associate love with some detachment. Often the love that we learned from our parents forbids mixing love and sex, because the people who taught us love were also inaccessible for sex. Therefore, sometimes, the more we love a person, the more difficult it is to make love to him.
Freud's method
There is no easy way out. Freud says that we cannot be absolutely rational, and society simply cannot be changed. In his 1930 book Dissatisfaction with Culture, Freud wrote that society has provided us with many benefits, but at the same time imposed a heavy dictate. For example, he allowed to have sex with only one person, imposed a taboo on incest, forced us to restrain all our impulsive desires, ordered to obey the authorities and work for. Society itself is neurotic in nature. This is the only way it can exist in the form in which we know it. Hence the constant wars and political strife.
Freud tried to find a cure for our neuroses and he called it psychoanalysis. According to Freud, the person of his unconscious attitudes enables a person to free himself from their obsessive dictate. During the sessions, he analyzed several things. He turned to dreams, which he considered to be expressions of unfulfilled desires, and he also studied parapraxis, what we know as Freudian slips.
Freud's theory can be viewed in different ways. Some consider his ideas the key to understanding the deep nature of man, and some completely reject them, but as Freud himself said, whoever despises the key can never open the door. And who knows, maybe Freud's theory is this very key, just for you. Who knows...
A brief overview of the classical psychoanalysis of Sigmund Freud: methods, techniques, scope and criticism from the scientific community.
Prerequisites for the emergence of the theory
The theory of psychoanalysis was developed in the late 19th century. There are two important points preceding this in the opinion of Sigmund Freud himself, which he "adopted", creating his theory. We are talking about the method of the Viennese doctor Josef Breuer and the method of the psychiatrist Hippolyt Bernheim. Freud had a chance to work with the first for some time, and he observed the method of Dr. Bernheim at one of the demonstrative training sessions.
Dr. Breuer's method.
Josef Breuer, an Austrian psychiatrist, developed a method called catharsis in 1880-1882. His patient, a 21-year-old girl, had paralysis of both right limbs with numbness, aversion to eating, and a number of other bodily and mental disorders. Symptoms of the disease appeared after the death of her beloved father, whom she stopped caring for due to her own illness.
Breuer put her into a state of hypnosis, brought her to a situation where her traumatic experiences appeared for the first time, achieved the emotional state that possessed her at that moment, and eliminated these "stuck" symptoms of the disease (1, pp. 165-170).
The history of her illness Breuer and Freud subsequently published jointly in the work "Investigations of Hysteria" (1895). Affective experiences that resulted in the appearance of symptoms of the disease have come to be called mental trauma. The direction of movement was determined: from the last trauma to the initial one, and the need to express affect in the process of remembering to release from the "stuck" traumatic experiences (1, p. 170-177).
Dr. Bernheim's method.
Hippolyte Bernheim, a psychiatrist, used hypnotic suggestion to treat neurotics. In 1889, Freud attended one of Bernheim's teaching sessions. During this session, the patient's memories from a sambulistic state under hypnosis, having overcome conscious resistance, were successfully restored to a waking state.
Subsequently, Freud introduced the concepts of resistance and repression as a protective mechanism of the psyche. To be able to work with the patient's resistance and repression, the method of free association was chosen instead of hypnosis. The concept of a conscious substitute for the repressed unconscious was introduced (1, pp. 180-185).
Sigmund Freud's theory of psychoanalysis
The basic idea of the theory can be summarized in the following quotation: “Erotic disorders should be attributed to the greatest importance among the factors leading to the disease, and this is so for both sexes ...
Why other emotional disturbances cannot give rise to the described phenomena of repression and replacement? I can answer this: I do not know why other, non-sexual, emotional disturbances should not lead to the same results, and I would have nothing against it; but experience shows that they do not have such a meaning, and at the most, they help the action of sexual moments, but they can never replace the latter, "Freud wrote (1, Ch." On Psychoanalysis, "p. 199).
The analytic work required must come up to the time of sexual development and early childhood. “Only childhood experiences explain the sensitivity to future traumas, and only by disclosing and bringing to consciousness these traces of memories, usually almost always forgotten, do we acquire the power to eliminate symptoms” (1, p. 201).
To substantiate the theory, Sigmund Freud introduced the concept of the Oedipus complex and successive phases in human psychosexual development (oral, anal, phallic and genital).
Methods of classical psychoanalysis
The means of recognizing what is hidden in psychoanalysis are: the method of free associations, the interpretation of dreams and the use of random reservations and erroneous actions of the patient.
The basic rule is: the patient must say everything. “He must say everything, completely abandoning any critical choice, everything that comes to his mind, even if he considers it wrong, irrelevant, meaningless ... Following this rule, we provide ourselves with material that will lead us on the trail of the repressed complexes "(1, p. 190).
The method of free association lies at the heart of psychoanalysis and is one of the main ones. The law of the formation of associations says that if some objects are perceived simultaneously or in close proximity, then later the appearance of one of them may lead to the realization of the other.
"The patient sometimes pauses, stumbles and begins to assert that he does not know what to say, that nothing comes to his mind at all ... However, a more subtle observation shows that such a refusal on the part of thoughts never really happens" (1 , p. 190).
Accidental reservations and erroneous actions reveal hidden, repressed intentions, desires or fears that, for various reasons, a person cannot show.
Interpretation of dreams.
Dreams are encrypted messages of the unconscious, not a meaningless collection of images. “Let's imagine that we want to replace a newspaper article with a series of illustrations. It will not be easy to do this ... it will be even more difficult to do it with abstract words and all parts of speech expressing logical relationships. "
“In the preface to the third English edition in 1931, the seventy-five-year-old Sigmund Freud wrote:“ This book (* The Interpretation of Dreams), in full accordance with my present ideas, contains the most valuable of the discoveries that a favorable fate allowed me to make. Insights of this kind fall on a person's lot, but only once in a lifetime ”(5).
A peculiar psychosexual direction of the theory of classical psychoanalysis implies the passage of the analyst and the analysand of certain mental processes.
Transfer process.
“The one whose need for love does not receive full satisfaction in reality is forced to turn his libidinal hopes on every new face ... Therefore, it is quite natural that the active force of libido also applies to the personality of the doctor,” wrote Sigmund Freud (1, p. . 293).
“The doctor must admit that the patient’s falling in love is forced by the analytical position and cannot be attributed to the superiority of his person and that he has no reason to be proud of such a“ conquest ”, as it would be called outside the analysis” (1, p. 303).
Countertransference process.
Countertransference is the analyst's response to the unconscious feelings towards the patient. "This phenomenon is one of the main dangers for the psychoanalyst, it can lead to mental infection of both."
Resistance refining process.
“Overcoming resistances begins with the fact that the doctor discovers a resistance that is never recognized by the analysand and points to it ... the indication of resistance is not immediately followed by its termination. It is necessary to give the patient time to delve into the unknown resistance to him, to process it, to overcome it ... "(1, ch." Methodology and Technique of Psychoanalysis ", p. 284).
The patient's resistance is an unconscious defense mechanism, it prevents him from realizing his unacceptable repressed thoughts and desires.
“This processing of resistances becomes in practice a painful task for the analysand and a test of the doctor's patience. But it is precisely this part of the work that has the greatest modifying influence on the patient, and it differs analytical treatment from any influence by means of suggestion ”(1, p. 285).
Catharsis process.
Catharsis is an emotional release, as a result of which a person is freed from repressed, traumatic experiences. This is the resolution of a neurotic conflict due to the memory and experience of negative emotions that were once "stuck" in the psyche.
The technique of classical psychoanalysis
A general idea of the techniques can be obtained from the following explanations of Sigmund Freud:
1. “I insist on the advice to put the patient on the sofa, while the doctor should take a place behind him so that the patient does not see him ... my face gave the patient material for interpretation or influenced what he said ”(1, ch.“ Psychoanalysis and Character ”, p. 259).
2. The patient should not be told what he should be talking about. “In general, it doesn’t matter what material to start treatment with, whether from a life history, medical history or childhood memories ... the patient is told:“ Before I can tell you anything, I need to know a lot about you, please tell me everything about yourself what do you know about yourself. " (1, p. 259).
3. We must say everything. There are no secrets and immodesty towards third parties. No names, dates, nothing can be hidden. This requirement “you must obey” (1, p. 260).
4. “It is necessary to eliminate any conscious influence on one's ability to memorize and completely surrender to 'unconscious memory' or, technically speaking, one should listen and not care whether you memorize anything ... , meanwhile, calmly, realizing his superiority, one can assure him that this message has now been made for the first time ”(1, p. 317).
5. Working with dreams is one of the main methods of the theory. "After he was told the content of the dream, Freud began to ask the same question about the individual elements of this dream: what comes to the narrator about this element when he thinks about it?" (5, "Interpretation of Dreams"). Understanding the unconscious needs expressed in dreams, according to Sigmund Freud, is the key to understanding the problem itself.
6. When can you begin to give the patient the necessary information, when is the time to reveal to him the secret meaning of the thoughts that arise in him? Not earlier than when the process of transference begins to develop. “The first goal of treatment remains to tie the patient to the treatment and to the personality of the doctor. And for this you need to do only one thing - to give the patient enough time ”(1, p. 265).
Scope of the theory.
Classical psychoanalysis is not designed for people over 50 years old: "Persons over the age of 50 have lost the plasticity of mental processes that therapy relies on."
The technique is also inapplicable for persons "without a known education and relatively trustworthy character," wrote Freud (1, chapter "Methodology and Technique of Psychoanalysis," p. 224). “I have developed a rule only conditionally for a period of one or two weeks to accept patients whom I know little” (1, p. 248).
You should not use the analysis for close and dear people: “As for the treatment of“ relatives ”, in this respect I confess to my complete confusion and generally have little confidence in the individual impact on them” (1, p. 325).
With neuroses, it is dangerous to push a person to be stronger than he is capable of. “A fair number of those who are now saving themselves in illness will not be able to withstand the expected conditions of the conflict, but will quickly perish or cause worse troubles than their own neurotic illness” (1, p. 238).
Guarantees.
Some patients ask to be relieved of one particular symptom, “but they overestimate the selective power of analysis. Of course, a doctor-analyst can achieve a lot, but he is not able to determine exactly what he can do ”(1, p. 255).
Classical psychoanalysis is long-term, we are talking about years. When asked how long the treatment could take, Freud answered with the words of Aesop: “To answer about the length of the road, you need to know the pace of the traveler and the speed of his movement” (1, p. 252).
“I allow everyone to interrupt the treatment when he pleases, but I do not hide from him that stopping the treatment after a short work will not give any success and, like an unfinished operation, will easily lead him to an unsatisfactory state” (1, p. 254).
Criticism of the theory of psychoanalysis
For many of the propositions of psychoanalysis, there is no way to refute in principle, and therefore, they cannot be considered scientific. "Professor of psychology at Yale University Paul Bloom noted that Freud's statements are so vague that they cannot be verified by any reliable method and therefore cannot be applied from the point of view of science" (Bloom P. Introduction to Psychology) (5).
The philosopher Leslie Stevenson, analyzing the concept of Sigmund Freud in the book "Ten Theories of Human Nature" (Eng. Ten Theories of Human Nature, 1974), drew attention to a number of points more characteristic of the sect, whose representatives "can easily analyze motivation of critics - that is, to attribute to unconscious resistance any attempts to doubt the truth of the concept they share. In fact, Freudianism is a closed system that neutralizes any evidence that speaks of falsification, and can be perceived as an ideology, the acceptance of which is mandatory for every psychoanalyst ”(3, 5).
“Biologist and Nobel laureate Peter Medawar described psychoanalysis as“ the greatest intellectual fraud of the twentieth century ”(5).
If we talk about the most famous students and associates of Sigmund Freud, such as Erich Fromm, Alfred Adler and Carl Gustav Jung, then they all subsequently departed from the key postulate of the theory (the sexual factor as the main motive for the onset of mental disorders). The study of the mental and mental state of a person was biased towards the socio-cultural elements of society and the environment.
Literature:
1. Freud, Z. Beyond the Pleasure / Per. with him. - Minsk: Harvest, 2004 .-- 432p.
2. Bern, E. People who play games.
3. Jose, Brunner. Freud and politics of psychoalanysis. - N.J .: Transaction Publishing, 2001.
4. Stevenson, Leslie. Critical Discussion / Ten Theories about Human Nature. - WORD / SLOVO, 2004.
5. Wikipedia. [Electronic resource] / Freud, Sigmund.
6. Freud, Z. Interpretation of dreams / Under total. ed. E. S. Kalmykova, M. B. Agracheva, A. M. Bokovikova. - M .: Firma STD, 2005.
The founder of psychoanalysis is Sigmund Freud, a student of the famous psychiatrist of the time, Jean Martin Charcot, from whom he received his fundamental knowledge of neurology. This article will focus on Freud's theory, where the main points of his concept are briefly and in simple language.
Freud was the first person who, using the method of psychoanalysis, was able to heal a patient with a half-paralyzed body. Her name was Anna O.
It was then that the beginning of the development of all existing psychotherapeutic methods was laid, starting with the behavioral theory of behavior and ending with the most modern approaches like neurolinguistic programming and systemic constellations.
To further understand Freud's theory, you must first reveal the essence of several concepts that underlie psychoanalysis.
Freudian personality theory in brief
Freud structured the human psyche into 3 components: Id, Ego and Superego.
Id is the unconditional source of desires and drives. By analogy, you can take any animal like, where everything that she does: sleeps, eats and mates is the result of her natural instincts.
The ego is the mediator between animal instincts and social frameworks. It is a component of the personality that expresses and satisfies the needs of the ID in accordance with the limitations of the external world.
The superego is all social framework that originates in parenting, where an understanding of what can and cannot be done is given. In adulthood, the superego is reflected in all limiting norms of behavior such as law, religion, and morality.
The topical model of the mental apparatus consists of 2 components: conscious and unconscious.
The unconscious is a special psychic force that lies outside the limits of consciousness and determines the vector of human behavior.
Conscious is a part of the psyche that is perceived by an individual. Determines the choice of behavior in a public environment. However, the psyche is automatically regulated by the pleasure principle. In case of imbalance, a reset is carried out through the unconscious sphere.
The conflict between Id and Superego is realized with the help of defense mechanisms. Sigmund Freud described some of them:
- Substitution
- Compensation
- crowding out
- Insulation
- Negation
- Projection
- Sublimation
- Rationalization
- Regression
Let's briefly analyze the most interesting defense mechanisms in order to better understand what it is.
Defense mechanisms of the psyche
Projection is a way of transferring one's own feelings and secret desires to another animate or inanimate object. For example, a prude is a person who hides true sexual desires and seeks out the slightest dirty intentions in the actions of others.
As for inanimate things, these are examples of situations in which a person endows objects or phenomena with his experiences. For example, a formidable sky, disturbing sculpture, harmful alcohol, etc.
By the way, there are diagnostic techniques based on projections. For example, a hand test, in which the participant is shown hand drawings, and he gives his associations and feelings from what he saw.
Repression - suppression and removal of unacceptable and threatening thoughts, images and memories from the conscious part of the psyche. An example is a strong shock like the death of a person, a catastrophe, or.
A person often does not remember the details and key points of a given event. Despite the fact that the content of the repressed motive is not recognized, the emotional component continues to manifest itself in different forms.
Having determined the fundamental foundations on which Freud's theory is built, we can consider in more detail the concept of psychoanalysis as a direction of the science of psychology.
The techniques used by psychoanalysis are free association, dream interpretation, interpretation, analysis of resistance and transference. All of them are aimed at working with the unconscious and bringing unconscious processes into the conscious sphere.
When this happens, the negative symptoms disappear. For example, with attacks of fear and uncontrollable anxiety, a person is not aware of their cause and tries to find a rational explanation. In this example, along with repression, such a protective mechanism of the psyche as rationalization works.
To identify and define unconscious processes in the brain, Freud invited patients to speak on free topics. As a rule, repressed processes manifest themselves in the form of neurotic symptoms: slips of the tongue, slip of the tongue, and awkward movements.
Interpretation of dreams according to Sigmund Freud
A wealth of material about mental processes can be obtained from dreams. Remember yourself in childhood: you probably had dreams in which the most intimate fantasies were realized. Perhaps you are dreaming about them even now.
This Id, guided by the principle of pleasure, realizes lust in this form. Thoughts in dreams are processed, being replaced by images. Interpretation is understood as the interpretation of hidden processes and meanings that are not realized by a person.
It is possible to write a separate article about the analysis of resistance and transference, since this is a fairly large area of knowledge of the discipline of psychoanalysis. That's all, Freud's theory in short and simple language looks something like this. Love science, read WikiScience!
Video on Freud's theory and what psychoanalysis is:
Based on two key premises. The first premise - genetic - is that the experiences a child experiences in childhood have a huge impact on them in adulthood. The essence of the second premise is that a person initially has a certain amount of sexual energy - libido. It is the libido that, during human development, goes through several stages, which represent a close relationship of instincts, psychology and sexual activity.
The hypothesis of four was named "Freud's theory of personality" and is of great scientific and practical interest for psychologists and doctors. According to Freud, development takes place over 4 stages, each of which is discussed below.
Stage 1. Oral phase.
The oral phase is in an infant from birth to one year of age. During this period, the child is completely dependent on the mother, and feeding is the main source of pleasure. Freud emphasizes that in this phase the child has only one desire - the absorption of food, and therefore the main erogenous zone is the mouth, because this is a means of nutrition and initial examination of surrounding objects.
Stage 2. Anal phase.
The next stage of personality development is anal, which in duration includes the age of the child from 12-18 months to the third year of life. Freud's theory of personality states that during this period the child begins to learn to control the physiological functions of his body. At this time, libido is concentrated around the anus, which is now the object of the child's attention.
Children's sexuality now finds its satisfaction in having control over the functions of their body (primarily, over defecation and excretion). It is important to note that according to Freud, it is during this period that the child encounters the first prohibitions. The outside world is now a high barrier for him. Development at this stage takes on the character of a conflict.
Stage 3. Phallic phase.
The new one manifests itself in a child aged three to six years. The libido is now concentrated in the genital area. At this stage, children begin to understand and become aware of sexual differences. The child notices either the presence or absence of a penis.
According to Freud, at this stage, the child already feels pleasure from the stimulation of the genitals, but such arousal is associated with the close presence of the parents.
Stage 4. Latent period.
This period is characterized by the concession of sexual manifestations to curiosity, which is associated with the diversity of the world around the child. The latency period coincides with the age of 5-12 years. Sexual activity during this period is reduced, libido is inconstant, the child is trying to identify his own "I".
Freud's theory of personality indicates that sexual impulses in this period are suppressed by the ideals of aesthetics, as well as morality, shame and disgust. At this age, personality development occurs in a set of biological processes, as well as under the influence of culture and education.
Stage 5. Genital phase.
The transition to the last phase of personality development is accompanied by the transition of the concentration of excitement and satisfaction to the genital area. During this period, genital masturbation is of key importance in satisfying sexual needs.
In conclusion, we note that Freud's theory of personality served as the basis for formulating the foundations of the genesis of the psyche of children: child development corresponds in stages to the movement of libido zones.
Loading ...